Child Protective Services Essay Example for Free

Child Protective Services Essay Ice users in the state of Hawaii, estimated to have reached 30,000 in 2003, were spending as much as $1. 8 billion every year to maintain their addiction in what has been referred to by U. S Attorney Ed Kubo as the â€Å"highest usage of ice in the country. † (Sinq, 2003) Ice refers to methamphetamine, a strong, extremely addictive stimulant which could be introduced to the body by smoking, sniffing, oral ingestion, or injection and affects the nervous system. (Drug-Rehabs. org, n. d. ) The substance was believed to have been discovered in Japan sometime in 1919 and was actually used as a nasal decongestant in 1932. It was manufactured legally as non-medical tablets in the United States, taking the form of â€Å"dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine) and methamphetamine (Methedrine). † It rapidly became a favorite among athletes, university students, and even long distance truck drivers – people who need to stay alert for long periods of time. An injectable form was developed during the 1960s but was subjected to severe restriction under the Controlled Substance Act of 1970. (Drug-Rehabs. org. n. d. ) Today, Prosecutor Peter Carlisle of Honolulu said that adult people in Hawaii have been turning to ice instead of alcohol – in fact the highest number of adult ice-users (by state) in the entire country is found in the state of Hawaii. In Honolulu, it was estimated that about 38% of all those arrested for various offenses have been found positive for methamphetamine. Moreover, while the average rate of sentenced methamphetamine traffickers for the entire country in 2001 was placed at 14%, the rate for Hawaii had been 51%. (A Message from Honolulu Prosecutor Peter Carlisle, 2007) This only means one thing: ice trafficking in Hawaii has grown to be a very flourishing industry, which, to some people, indicates that ice abuse has already reached epidemic proportions in the state. As a matter of fact, recorded deaths attributed to methamphetamine use have also been steadily on the rise since 2000 when 34 persons were believed to have died from using the substance. In 2001, the number rose to 54 then climbed to 62 in 2002 before decreasing slightly to 56 deaths during the year 2003. In 2004, ice-related deaths rose again to 68 and as of the middle of May 2005, there were already 38 ice-related deaths in the state of Hawaii. According to Dr. Kanthi De Alwis, Chief Medical Examiner of Honolulu, majority of deaths from ice were due to the substance’s effect on the human brain and heart. He said that ice weakens and enlarges the heart, and blocks the coronary arteries. In some of the cases, Alwis said, blood enters the brain, killing the ice user almost instantly. (Drug-Rehabs. org, 2005) User death did not prove to be the only adverse effect of the ice epidemic on Hawaiian society. A much more damaging consequence had been its effect on children. In fact it was observed that although abuse of alcohol and illegal drugs also resulted to fractured families, ice addiction had proven to be more powerful and destructive, consuming â€Å"parents’ lives so quickly that experts placed it in a class of its own. † (Dayton, 2003b) As of 2003, almost 85% of the 7,000 children who were under foster care were children of ice users. Most of these children were traumatized. They also showed signs of being â€Å"angry† and were often destructive in their ways, aside from the fact that most of them lagged in their school work. Many of them have expressed their belief that their parents abandoned them either because something was very wrong with them, or their parents simply stopped loving them. If left unattended, experts feared that these children might end up as substance abusers themselves. At the very least, they are expected to suffer from the long-term effects of living with constant violence and chaos in the family. This is what some health professionals are trying to prevent, according to Jack Maynor who works as a child counselor in a spouse-abuse shelter. (Dayton, 2003a) In many cases, children were separated from their parents because of the parents’ addiction to ice. Families where either or both parents are ice addicts are characterized by violence, child abandonment, or both. Peggy Hilton of the East Hawai’i Child Welfare Services said that there are people who become totally addicted to methamphetamine in only a matter of a couple of weeks. She explained that ice is characterized by â€Å"extreme levels of domestic violence [and that] after a binge, ice users ‘crash’ and can sleep for days, leaving the children in the house to fend for themselves. † According to officials of the Child Protective Services, they are separating up to forty children from their parents every month due to ice addiction in the Big Island alone. (Dayton, 2003b) The effect of parents’ addiction to ice among Hawaiian children has been very extensive. Professionals working with children of methamphetamine abusers often talk about the depressing experiences of these children. James Jolliff, a clinical psychologist from Waimea, recalled working with a girl who found her ice addict father hanging from a tree in their backyard in an attempt to kill himself. He said that while her father was rescued from that suicide attempt, the girl was traumatized and would remain to be so for a long time to come. (Dayton, 2003a)

Impressionism And The Work Of Debussy

Impressionism And The Work Of Debussy Debussy was a tonal trailblazer; a musical pioneer who revolutionised not only French music at a time when it was stagnating and receding from the world stage, but the entire Western musical tradition as well. Almost all subsequent styles which followed were either directly or indirectly affected by his originality, for example jazz, atonality and minimalism. After Debussys significant contribution to the repertoire nothing, to iterate a clichà ©, was ever the same again in musical terms. Nevertheless, it is precisely his striking innovation which has rendered Debussy so difficult to categorise. Musicologists encounter no trouble in labelling Mozart a Classical composer or Liszt a Romantic, yet how to catalogue Debussys oeuvres has presented critics with a conundrum for many decades; and is one, as yet, without a universally accepted solution. The most widely-utilised term in reference to the composers compositions is without doubt Impressionism, and is widely accepted by those who do not study music, and also by some who do, as a sole definition of his works. But can this label really encompass a compositional career that spans so many different styles and innovations? This essay will endeavour to answer this question, and to prove that Impressionism alone is not a fair assessment of Debussys music; that he is, despite there being characteristics from a number of aesthetic movements found in his works, almost impossible to classify. Debussys second envoi de Rome precipitated the first ever appearance of the tag Impressionism regarding his works. In a criticism of his orchestral and vocal piece Printemps (1887), the Secretary to the Acadà ©mie des Beaux-Arts opined: One has the feeling of musical colour exaggerated to the point where it causes the composer to forget the importance of precise construction and form. It is to be strongly hoped that he will guard against this vague impressionism, which is one of the most dangerous enemies of truth in works of art. This was a gross misunderstanding and misreading of Debussys intentions, and one which has stuck tenaciously and erroneously ever since. Before the reasons why this is such a misnomer is discussed, it must be acknowledged that it is possible to describe some of Debussys music as Impressionistic. Impressionism was first applied to painting as a label as a consequence of Claude Monets painting Impression, soleil levant (1872). Impressionism was a subsidiary of the wider notion of Realism. Stefan Jarocinski encapsulates the movement impeccably, explaining that Impressionists were concerned with seizing the image of a reality which had not yet been deformed by the intervention of the intelligence and wanted to create a pure impression; that is, unblemished by the sphere of intellect. The Impressionists, in short, were purveyors of sensuality. It must be understood that labelling Debussy in such terms is not entirely invalid. Although he was composing largely after the heyday of the Impressionist painters (the 1860s, 70s and 80s), some of his compositions (namely La mer [1903-05] and Images [1904-08]) do display qualities and tendencies associated with this movement. Debussy himself wrote to the editor of the La revue musicale, Emile Vuillermoz, in 1916, saying: You do me a great honour by calling me a pupil of Claude Monet. It is true to say that a number of the composers artistic principles correspond to those expressed or implied by the Impressionists. For instance, during a rehearsal for the premiere of La mer (1903-05), in answer to conductor Chevillard who had expressed confusion at Debussys specified tempo differing from that of the previous day, the composer replied: but I dont feel music the same way every day. On a wider level, this statement can be interpreted as being compatible with the common Impressionist pr actice of painting the same scene at different times of the day (for example, Monets Water Lilies or Haystacks). Several painters of the movement in question were inspired by similar stimuli as Debussy. A prime example of this is their admiration of Japanese artist Hokusai, whose celebrated woodblock print appeared on the cover page of La mer (1903-5), as stipulated by Debussy. Like the Impressionist painters, again, he made frequent use of water as an inspiration for his compositions. See below a juxtaposition of Sisleys Watermill at the Bridge of Moret in Winter (Ex. 1, 1893) and an extract from Debussys Reflets dans leau from the first volume of Images (Ex. 2, 1905). Note how the rising and falling semitone figure is an evocation of the ebbing and flowing movement of the water. Ex. 1 Ex. 2 In summary, Stefan Jarocinski, despite disagreeing with the application of the term in reference to Debussy, hails Impressionism as the supremacy of musical colour over form and design, an assertion that could certainly describe his musical convictions of other elements subservience to tone colour and the rejection of accepted traditional forms and harmonic principles. Even his biographer, Louis Laloy, claims that Debussys music is a purely auditory music, just as Impressionist painting is entirely visual. However, even Debussys so-called Impressionist pieces cannot be described as exclusively affiliated with this movement. For instance La mer (1903-05), although its depiction of the sea is obvious in its music as well as its title, cannot merely be interpreted as an entirely visual sensory experience, without connotation. As pianist Paul Roberts writes, the sea has often been used to represent themes of love and femininity. The time at which it was written was one of emotional upheaval for Debussy, as he left his wife Lilly Texier for another, Emma Bardac. Equipped with this knowledge, it seems that La mer occupied a deeper, psychologically cathartic purpose that lies beyond the intentions of the Impressionist painters. The Acadà ©mies comments on Debussys Printemps, and by extension, his other works, is an inaccurate, reactionary and narrow evaluation based on musical conservatism. The label, as argued by E. Robert Schmitz, has been detrimental to status of the composers works ever since. He laments that it has resulted in innumerable flawed and misguided performances with use of excessive pedal. His compositions are in fact anything but vague; they are precise and fastidious. In addition, conversely to the common misconception that his piano pieces are indistinct and laden with pedal use, he actually utilises the piano in a masterly way which shows a deep understanding of the instrument and its parameters. In contradiction to the common misconception as outlined by Schmitz, his music is often percussive rather than vague, for example the opening bars of La sà ©rà ©nade interrompue (Ex. 3, from Prà ©ludes, Book 1, 1909-10), which imitates a Spanish guitar, emphatically staccato. Further analyse s of his works reveal the use of Golden Sections, displaying a precision and mathematical element to his compositions that is quite extraordinary. Ex. 3 It must also be noted that Debussy himself rejected the unfortunate label assigned to him, as expressed in a letter to his publishers in 1908: I am trying to do something different in a way, realities what the imbeciles call impressionism, a term which is as poorly used as possible, particularly by art critics. Regarding this, it could be interpreted that the composer disagreed with the label itself rather than the aesthetic, as reality is precisely what the Impressionists hoped to convey. However, one must concede that if the composer wasnt himself happy with the term, and if his music rarely displays qualities which are characteristic of the movement, then it is accurate to say that defining Debussy as an Impressionist is not a valid categorisation. Almost as commonly circulated a term in reference to Debussy is Symbolism. This is a much fairer assessment of his music. The movement, which has its origins in the writings of Charles Baudelaire, grew quickly in Paris during the latter half of the nineteenth century. In brief, Symbolism was a reaction against Realism, and can be seen as almost the antithesis of Impressionism. Its followers were concerned with externalising, through the means of art, the internal, and often infernal, world of the mind, dreams and the supernatural. There is unimpeachable evidence to align Claude Debussy with Symbolism. To begin with, it was a movement rooted in literary origins. Debussy, despite being largely uneducated in any discipline but music, was well-read and had a passion for literature that permeated through to his compositions. His strongest influences were words and writers rather than the visual arts (although Symbolism wasnt exclusively a literary movement; it existed in art too). Debussy gravitated towards Symbolist beliefs, and forged close friendships with notable figures associated with the movement, such as Paul Bourget and Stà ¨phane Mallarmà ©, whose literary salon he was a regular attendee of. Much of his music was overtly Symbolist in character. Prà ©lude à   laprà ¨s-midi dun faune (1892-94), the orchestral tone poem that took his recognition to a new level entirely, is based on a poem by Mallarmà ©. Its whimsical flute opening (Ex. 4) is tonally and rhythmically ambiguous, portraying the indistinct dreams of the eponymous faun; a central theme in Symbolist philosophy. Ex. 4 There is plenty of non-musical evidence to support Debussys affiliation with the Symbolist movement. In 1901 he began to write for a Symbolist periodical, La Revue blanche, and his Chansons de Bilitis (1897-8), as well as their words being written by Debussys close friend and Symbolist Pierre Louà ¿s, was published by Librairie de lart indà ©pendant, a Symbolist publisher. Mediaevalism, or to be more accurate, pseudo-Mediaevalism, a core Symbolist credence, is prevalent in many works. The imitation of monastic organum music (Ex. 5) in the opening bars of La cathà ©drale engloutie (From Prà ©ludes, Book 1, 1909-10) is a prime example, as is the fact that Pellà ©as et Mà ©lisande (1893-5), is set in Allemonde (literally Other World), an imagined Mediaeval setting. Ex. 5 Pellà ©as et Mà ©lisande (1893-5), Debussys only opera, based on a play by writer Maurice Maeterlinck, heralds the zenith of his association with the Symbolist movement. It makes frequent use of symbolism (for example hair to depict eroticism; light and shade to provide conceptual symbols of doomed love). Parallels can be drawn with Wagner, whom Symbolists admired ardently, and who influenced Debussy greatly in the earlier years of his compositional career. Both Wagners Tristan and Isolde (1875-9) and Pellà ©as are tragedies, use leitmotivs and have common themes of love and death. Debussy was as enthusiastic a supporter of his predecessor as any Symbolist, having visited Bayreuth in 1888 and 1889. However, his Wagnerism and Symbolism waned soon after the first performance of Pellà ©as. Furthermore, in 1893 he declared his intention to write an article entitled The Futility of Wagnerism which, although it never materialised, suggests a marked shift in his values. This is why it i s as invalid to describe Debussys music exclusively in terms of Symbolism as it is Impressionism. Both labels represent only a fraction of his artistic output and fail to acknowledge that between Pellà ©as and La mer, a change occurred in his music that was reliant on neither poets nor artists, which could suggest that his own unique voice was finally established after years of musical exploration. In 1889 Debussy had an experience which was to significantly alter the nature of his compositions. During a visit to the Universal Exposition he encountered the sound of the Javanese gamelan for the first time. The pentatonic tonality he heard was to be incorporated into some of his most celebrated compositions, for instance in Pagodes from the piano triptych Estampes (1903), whose blue and gold cover evoking Japan, as well as music exemplifies the Exoticism that the composer incorporated into so many of his pieces. Debussys love of Spain filters through in the second movement, Soirà ©e dans Grenade, in which a habanera rhythm underpins the piece (Ex. 6). As well as Exoticism, it can be interpreted that Debussys music contains elements of the Pre-Raphaelite movement (La damoiselle à ©lue, 1887-8, the text of which was written by Dante Gabriel Rossetti) and even the Romantics (there are sometimes common themes between their beliefs and ideas expressed in Debussys compositions, for e xample escaping by means of travel and antiquity). Ex. 6 Debussy himself christened all labels useful terms of abuse, recognising the arbitrary nature of inflicting any sort of category upon his works. As Paul Dukas wrote in 1901: his music is unclassifiable. Debussy was a radical who defies classification because he is so different to his predecessors and encompasses so many different styles and movements, which is why musicologist encounter such difficultly in trying to pigeonhole him. Beethoven is often described as being both Classical and Romantic. Debussy was also a giant amongst composers in this sense, constructing a bridge between tradition and modernity and liberating harmonic convention. He instigated a musical transition; pre-empted the future. His legacy is far too great to describe in such narrow a term as Impressionism.

The Use of Helicopters for the Primary Purpose of Air Ambulances in Wor

Introduction In this paper we will discuss the first documented use of helicopters for the primary purpose of Air Ambulances in World War II. During 1943, the United States, British Commonwealth and the Chinese faced the armies of Japan, Thailand and Indian National Army. The Burmese Independent Army started off on the Japanese side, but later switched sides fighting with the allied forces. Under the control of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the United States made a decision to support the Chinese during the war with aircraft.1 With Japan controlling much of the Chinese territory, the main supply route for the Chinese was thru the Burma Road. This supply route was essential to operations in the area shaped a restructure for the way supplies would be delivered to soldiers fighting and patients being able to get the urgent care they extremely needed. The only logical and expeditious way to do all of this would be through the use of aircraft flying a supply route known as â€Å"the Hump.†2 History Commanders from all units across the world have thought about how to take care of their troops in times of war. Maybe one of the most heavily weighed thoughts is how much risk I am willing to take if I can’t provide my men immediate medical care at the time when they most need it. Dated back as far as 1866, the idea of an â€Å"Air Ambulance† has been on the minds of certain individuals across the world. Paris, France first used the hot air balloons in order to evacuate more than 160 soldiers from the besieged city to medical care facilities.3 In the beginning, using a hot air balloon to rescue shipwrecked sailors seemed logical since the balloons where already delivering mail and supplies across the area of operations. This action dire... ...pter Evacuation, http://olive-drab.com/od_medical_evac_helio_ww2.php Ed Holmes, MEDEVAC Flight in WWII, http://www.helis.com/stories/burma45.php History of Air Ambulance and MEDEVAC, Mercy Flight, http://www.mercyflight.org/content/pages/medevac Map Of Burma, BBC, Animated Map: The Burma Campaign, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/interactive/animations/wwtwo_map_burma/index_embed.shtml Mark W. Bielauskas, Imphal, The Hump and Beyond, http://www.comcar.org/Air%20Commando%20Group/1st_air_commando_group_beginings.htm Peter Dorland and James Nanney, DUST OFF: Army Aeromedical Evacuation in Vietnam, CMH Publisher, 90-28-1, page 9 U.S. Army Medical Department, Call Sign – DUSTOFF â€Å"Chapter 1† http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/other_pub/dustoff/Dustoffch1.pdf World War 2 Burma, History Channel, http://www.history.co.uk/explore-history/ww2/burma.html

Damnation of a Canyon Essay -- Edward Abbey Nature Environment Essays

The Damnation of a Canyon   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Not many people know of the used-to-be 150-mile excursion that the Glen Canyon had to offer. Not many people know how to sail a raft down a river for a week. Not many people know how to interact with nature and the animals that come with it. We seem to come from a world that is dependent on time and consumed in money. Edward Abbey is what you would call an extreme environmentalist. He talks about how it was an environmental disaster to place a dam in which to create Lake Powell, a reservoir formed on the border of Utah and Arizona. He is one of the few that have actually seen the way Glen Canyon was before they changed it into a reservoir. Today, that lake is used by over a million people, and is one of the biggest recreation hot spots in the western United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, Edward Abbey admits to being a certain bias and that he is a, â€Å"butterfly chaser, googley eyed bleeding heart and wild conservative.† So, in other words he is intending this article to be read by environmental activist who will support his opinion and the action that he is trying to take. Edward Abbey worked as a seasonal park ranger for Glen Canyon National Recreation Area back in 1967, so of course he would be against any environmental action taken to change the canyon. He stated that before the damnation of the canyon that there were streams, waterfalls, plunge pools, and plenty of wildlife. Now you can only find that on a small scale and that these thing...

Language, Action and Time in Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot Essay

Language, Action and Time in Waiting for Godot Twenty-two hundred years before the emergence of the Theater of the Absurd, the Greek philosopher Artistotle stumbled upon one of the themes developed in Samuel Beckett's play Waiting for Godot; that is, that Thought (Dianoia) is expressed through Diction and that Thought (Theoria) is in itself a form of Action (Energeia). Intellectual action is thus measured equally in comparison to physical action. Over the centuries, theories regarding thought, action and language have evolved considerably, but certain underlying themes in Beckett's unconventional work can trace their origins back to Aristotle's original concepts concerning drama, namely the relationships between language, thought and the action involved in contemplation. Aristotle proposes that Thought and Diction imitate Action. In Beckett's Waiting for Godot, it is possible to see a similar pattern (that when taken a step further is no longer linear but circular), in which Language permits the existence of Thought which in turn becomes vicarious Action. (Ironically, this whole process which is portrayed by Beckett on-stage is equivalent to the art of theater itself which, manifested through language, permits the audience offstage, whose witnessing of a play replaces imagining it, to undergo the same process in acting vicariously through the characters.) The first and more interesting part of the process is best illustrated by the ending of both acts when Vladimir, and then Estragon, says "Yes, let's go" and the stage directions indicate "They do not move". It suffices simply to say and subsequently to think of leaving, for there is no more meaning in the vicarious action than in its actual physical manifestation. ... ... Vladimir who comments about the condition of Estragon's feet: "There's man all over for you, blaming on his boots the faults of his feet." The boots represent god, for each is an external object that man contrives to protect himself. Beckett is saying that man should not blame the devices that he creates when they fail to protect him from himself, but should rather accept the responsibility for their failure as he is the creator of those devices. If god does not fill man's existential void, instead of hopelessly waiting for that unreliable god to come and rescue him, he should consider looking to himself to resolve the problem of the meaninglessness of his life. Bibliography Aristotle. Poetics. Tr. S.H. Butler. New York: Hill and Wang, 1977 Beckett, Samuel. Waiting for Godot. New York: Grove Press, 1954 Durozoi, GÃ ©rald. Beckett. Paris: Bordas, 1972

Responsibilities of Business Organizations

With the rate at which technology is currently growing and the number of competitors available in markets also increasing, responsibilities by firms is obligatory. With all this, it is of great importance to observe issues relating to business ethics with a very keen eye. For businesses to be valued in terms of ethics, they must observe principles related to ethics. This value attached to business ethics can make a business boost its performance and achieve set objectives and goals (Donaldson & Werhane 34). Customers, employees and employer satisfactions will dictate the type of ethics to be followed in a business.The responsibility of acting ethically lies on the hands of each single person in the organization. Acting ethically means more than adhering to company rules, policies or laws. Everything done counts and constitutes of visibility concerns that must be held high. Some of the business’ responsibilities expected to be practiced include the following. Legal Systems It i s argued that the law binds the business to its ethics. Milton Friedman the view’s pioneer said that as long as businesses are faced with the obligation of making profits, all its activities should be inline with the country’s legal system.Friedman says that businesses should conform to core rules of both the country of operation and the ethics of the location where the business is located (Donaldson, & Werhane123) The legal system of a country ensure that firms are regulated from engaging in activities that can prove detrimental to the broader perspective of social good including its citizens and environment. It’s the responsibility of the firm to ensure that all these regulations are complied with as far as running its activities.This is despite the inability of government laws being unable to cover all perspectives of business operations. Business Practices and Priorities Businesses are expected to be responsible in performing their activities. This is becaus e the most crucial stakeholders of the firm dictate them to be. For instance it is the obligation of the business to carry out activities that are in agreement with their employees views. This is due to the benefits that accompany increased engagements and cooperation of employees. Other key stakeholders include customers, investors and consumers.The community of operation and regulators all require their needs to be satisfied by the corporations. It’s upon the organization to determine the degree of importance of each stakeholder and how to satisfy their different needs. Community Expectations It is the responsibility of the firm to work hand in hand with the local community. This in turn will prevent conflicts that are bound to take place when disagreements regarding some actions taken or not taken by one of the parties involved. The community will hold the corporation responsible for its actions.The community expects so much from the business and it’s of great impor tance if the firm fulfills this expectation. This can be in form of employment creation, participation in community activities and provision of better and improved living standard due to the other amenities attracted to the region. Education and Crisis Management It’s the responsibility of the organization to ensure that the society is educated regarding its operations. The society and the corporation should be able to work collectively with the society to tackle pressures that are taking place due to constant changes.If the company is involved in activities that can lead to crises, the duty of taking up cleaning measures lies on it. This is to avoid the effects that may result from the actions taken. The business has the responsibility of creating awareness to its customers and consumers regarding the side effects of their operations in the region and the products it’s selling. References Donaldson, Thomas& Patricia, Werhane. Ethical Issues in Business: A Philosophica l Approach. New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2008.

Immoral Greed †War and Morality

I am writing to you today because I want to express to you my ideas on morality and war. Morality is an ideal that can be defined as doing what is right, from a philosophical perspective, regardless of the potential consequences of taking action. Although morality is simple to define, what is moral to one person may be immoral to another, making morality entirely subjective when it comes to real problems. Political, societal, and religious influences are just a few inputs that can affect whether a person sees a particular situation as either moral or immoral. Morality is entirely relative, and can change based on the situation. One of the most controversial issues, as morality is concerned, is that of war. While war is a necessary evil, political influences and the need for power make war a potential immoral action when it is not done for the betterment of a nation or society. The motives of a nation that goes to war are one of the most controversial when it comes to the issues of morality. A nation can become involved in a violent interaction for many reasons, and the morality of the war can be based on these reasons. Some wars are fueled by power hungry politicians, while others are waged on religious or societal beliefs and impressions. The issue of morality and war is covered in Jimmy Carter’s, â€Å"Just War – or a Just War?† and Martin Luther King, Jr.’s, â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail†. First, I believe that in order for a war to be a moral war, all non-violent options must be exercised. In Jimmy Carter’s op-ed piece, entitled â€Å"Just War – or a Just War?†, Mr. Carter makes the observation that â€Å"†¦ war can be waged only as a last resort† (Carter 260). Before a war is waged, a nation’s leaders should exhaust any diplomatic means of resolving the differences they have with their foes. In some governments, hunger for power, rather than acting on a threat, causes war to be waged at the drop of a hat. In the current war in Iraq, there is much controversy over whether the United States declared war on Iraq because it was a last resort, or because the U.S. was hungry for power, and wanted to exert its influence over the Iraqi people. This element of war is further corroborated in Martin Luther King, Jr.’s , â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail†. At the height of racial tension in the South, King writes, â€Å"†¦ the city’s white power structure left the Negro community with no alternative† (King, Jr. 164). This reflects that not only can war be waged between nations, it can also be waged in a different sense, among a nation. Mr. King also outlines four steps in resolving conflicts in a non-violent manner, â€Å"†¦ collection of the facts to determine whether injustices exist; negotiation; self-purification; and direct action† (King, Jr. 164). It is important to note that the final step in this outline is direct action. In the same way that problems between nations must be resolved, tensions among a nation must also be resolved, and these attempts at a resolution must be made in a diplomatic way if possible before war is waged. Secondly, I believe that a moral war must consist of actions that are equivalent to those actions taken against the nation. Although the consequences of war, such as death and destruction, are inevitable, Carter also notes that, â€Å"Its violence must be proportional to the injury we have suffered† (Carter 260). To lash out at a weaker nation simply because of differing ideals is not an acceptable cause for war. However, to react to a threat or aggressive acts, is an acceptable cause to wage a war. Many times, governments are hungry for power and will go to war for any reason, simply to exert their power and influence over other countries, thus extending their influence across the nations. For example, the war that the United States has waged against Iraq is a questionable one when it comes to this element. Carter notes that the â€Å"†¦ efforts to tie Iraq to the 9/11 terrorist attacks have been unconvincing† (Carter 260). Although Saddam Hussein’s rule over his people may have been cruel and murderous, the United States did not have the evidence they should have had linking Iraq to the Twin Towers incident in order to justify declaring war. In this sense, the current war may not be moral, as the United States acted out of proportion to any actions Iraq took against us. The idea of any retaliation against or among a nation being based only on injuries suffered, is furthered in Mr. King’s observations. In Martin Luther King, Jr.’s, â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail†, he notes that â€Å"we have not made a single gain in civil rights without determined legal and nonviolent pressure† (King, Jr. 166). Because the injuries suffered by the African American public in the South were not of a physical nature, but rather a political nature, Mr. King reiterates that with consistent pressure from the African American community in a non-violent manner, they have been able to make progress in obtaining civil rights. It is important to note Mr. King’s emphasis on the necessity of determination in bringing about any amount of change to the African American community. To resolve the conflict in the South between races, it took many years of protesting and non-violent measures, and if the African American population had not been determined to bringing about a non-violent end to their struggle, the changes that took place may have never occurred. Finally, I believe that a war can only be considered to be moral if the outcome of the war is a significant improvement over the nation that existed prior to the conflict. Carter notes that in order for a war to be just, â€Å"The peace it establishes must be a clear improvement over what exists† (Carter 260). In essence, the aftermath of the war must create a sense of peace that is much improved over what had previously existed within the nation – if it does not, the war was ultimately in vain. These elements are apparent in the current war that the United States is waging in Iraq. The United States has gone to war with Iraq, perhaps with the best of intentions for the Iraqi people, but only chaos and destruction have ensued. The peace of the nation of Iraq has not been much improved over what was previously in place. Martin Luther King, Jr. touches on the idea of acceptable moral reasons for demanding changes, as well. Mr. King writes, â€Å"Thus it is that I can urge men to obey the 1954 decision of the Supreme Court, for it is morally right; and I can urge them to disobey segregation ordinances, for they are morally wrong† (King, Jr. 168). In both Carter and King’s writing, it is well noted that peace is the ultimate goal of any conflict, whether it be between nations or among one nation. In conclusion, morality is a subjective ideal that is a contributor to conflicts both between nations and among one nation. War is necessary, but can be based on political, religious, or societal pressures of a nation. War can be perpetuated by political greed, or religious and societal reasons. It is important for a nation to make a valiant attempt to diplomatically resolve their conflicts with other nations or among their own nation before waging war. The morality of waging war is one of the most controversial issues nations face, whether it be with other nations or in dealing with conflicts among their own nation. Works Cited Carter, Jimmy. â€Å"Just War – or a Just War?† The Presence of Others: voices and images that call for response. Andrea Lunsford and John Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford, 2004. 259-261. King, Jr., Martin L. â€Å"Letter From Birmingham Jail†. The Presence of Others: voices and images that call for response. Andrea Lunsford and John Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford, 2004. 163-176.